Randall Spackman states that the “first year of the reign of Zedekiah” (1 Nephi 1:4) was the first year of Lehi’s formal calling as a prophet and not necessarily when Lehi left. It is not known whether Lehi was called in the commencement of the first year of Zedekiah’s actual rule (beginning very shortly after Nebuchadnezzar captured Jerusalem on March 10, 597 B.C.E.) or in the beginning of the first year following Zedekiah’s formal coronation (which probably occurred in October 597 B.C.E.), or if “commencement” is just a general term. Whatever the case, the year 597 B.C.E. has been verified by many scholars and the ancient Babylonian Chronicles (note* these are cuneiform tablets written in journal form from 626 to 539 B.C.). The tablets were translated in 1956. This apparently represents the earliest time when Lehi might have departed Jerusalem. [Randall Spackman, “Introduction to Book of Mormon Chronology,” F.A.R.M.S., p. 7] [See the commentary on 1 Nephi 10:4] [See Appendix A]
“In the Commencement of the First Year of the Reign of Zedekiah - Textual Dating”
According to the footnote on page one of the current edition of the Book of Mormon, “the commencement of the first year of the reign of Zedekiah” (1 Nephi 1:4) happened “about 600 B.C.,” which if taken with the other chronological references means sometime in the year 600 B.C. This proposed date creates a serious problem because as Robert Smith explains, among scholars there is not the slightest question about the absolute status of 597 B.C. as the year when Nebuchadrezzar II first placed Zedekiah on the throne of Judah. [Robert F. Smith, “Book of Mormon Event Structure: The Ancient Near East,” F.A.R.M.S., p. 1] [See the commentary on 1 Nephi 10:4] [See Appendix A]
According to Sidney Sperry, the Brethren who first presented the chronological data in the 1920 edition of the Book of Mormon did a remarkably good job, considering the complexity of their task. However, some errors still remain. [Sidney Sperry, Book of Mormon Chronology, preface].
1 Nephi 1:4 Zedekiah ([Illustration] This diagrammatic chart shows the genealogy of Zedekiah (Mattaniah) and the relationship between him and Jehoiakim, Jehoahaz, and Jehoiachin. [Tyndale House, The Illustrated Bible Dictionary, Vol. 3, p. 1678]
“In the Commencement of the First Year of the Reign of Zedekiah - Allen Theory”
If the phrase “in the commencement of the first year of the reign of Zedekiah” (1 Nephi 1:4) marks the time of Lehi’s departure from Jerusalem, and if Nephi marked time by using a 365-day calendar year like ours, then Joseph Allen proposes the following:
Is it possible that when Nebuchadnezzar changed the name of the 597 B.C. King Mattaniah to Zedekiah, the pattern had already been established when Nebuchadnezzar entered into Jerusalem in the year 601 B.C.? Is it possible that the name “Zedekiah” became a title and that Jehoiakim and Jehoachin may also have been given the name or title of Zedekiah [but didn’t use it]? After all, the Egyptians had changed Jehoiakim’s name from Eliakim eight years earlier when they were in control (2 Chronicles 36:4). [Joseph Allen, Exploring the Lands of the Book of Mormon, p. 24] [See also the commentary on 1 Nephi 10:4] [See Appendix A]
1 Nephi 1:4 The first year of the reign of Zedekiah ([Illustration] This Babylonian Chronicle text tells how Nebuchadrezzar appointed “a king of his own choice”, i.e. Zedekiah (Mattaniah), instead of Jehoiachin after the Babylonian capture of Jerusalem in March 597 B.C. [Tyndale House, The Illustrated Bible Dictionary, Vol. 3, p. 1679]
“In the Commencement of the First Year of the Reign of Zedekiah”
In 1 Nephi 10:4 Nephi writes that “even six hundred years from the time that my father left Jerusalem, a prophet would the Lord God raise up among the Jews--even a Messiah, or in other words, a Savior of the world.” In the title and superscription to the book of Third Nephi we find the following:
The book of Nephi the son of Nephi, who was the son of Helaman. And Helaman was the son of Helaman, who was the son of Alma, who was the son of Alma, being a descendant of Nephi who was the son of Lehi, who came out of Jerusalem in the first year of the reign of Zedekiah, the king of Judah.
This would place the departure of Lehi from Jerusalem and the first year of the reign of Zedekiah at an approximate date of 600 B.C. (realizing that the BC-AD system might be chronologically skewed a few years and that some calendar “years” are different in length than others). Cleon Skousen notes the following:
This date [600 B.C.] for Zedekiah was ridiculed when the Book of Mormon was first published in 1830 because secular chronologists had decided that the first year of the reign of King Zedekiah was 553 B.C. (B. H. Roberts, Studies of the Book of Mormon, Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1985, pp. 2-3). Today, however, the chronologists have gradually changed their date until now they are designating 598 B.C. as the correct one. This honest attempt to persist in their research so as to accurately target the proper date for the beginning of Zedekiah’s reign, has now brought these scholars 45 years closer to the date divinely revealed in the American scripture. They have only two more years to go. [W. Cleon Skousen, Days of the Living Christ, Vol. 1, p. xxx]
Note* Book of Mormon readers should not be too upset by a cultural detail such as the date of Lehi’s departure from Jerusalem still being a matter of debate and continued study. A number of dates for Lehi’s departure from Jerusalem have been proposed, along with varying lengths of “years,” and even the idea that the “600 years” was only considered an approximate span of time. [Alan C. Miner, Personal Notes] [See the commentary on Alma 13:25; see Apppendix A]
“In the First Year of the Reign of Zedekiah - Allen Theory”
In a letter to the editor of The Book of Mormon Archaeological Digest we find the following:
In the last issue’s “A 600-Year Prophecy” Dr. Allen states, “While there is no textual substantiation for this presumption, it makes sense that if Nebuchadnezzar changed Mattaniah’s name [to Zedekiah], he likely changed Jehoiachim’s name as well.” In response to this statement, Loyal Baker submitted the following:
I would suggest that the following verses offer verification that his proposal is correct. Note the curious wording used in Jeremiah 27:1-13:
“In the beginning of the reign of Jehoiakim the son of Josiah king of Judah came this word unto Jeremiah from the Lord, saying. Thus saith the Lord to me; Make thee bonds and yokes, and put them upon thy neck, and send them to the king of Edom, and to the king of Moab, … by the hand of the messengers which come to Jerusalem unto Zedekiah king of Judah; … [and say that] I have given all these lands unto the hand of Nebuchadnezzar the king of Babylon, my servant; … I spake also to Zedekiah king of Judah … saying, Bring your necks under the yoke of the king of Babylon … and live.”
These words came to Jeremiah “in the beginning” of the reign of Jehoiakim,“ yet the servants from other nations came to Jerusalem to see ”Zedekiah king of Judah.“ And what was the message? To serve Nebuchadnezzar king of Babylon, who became king of Babylon in the fourth year of Jehoiakim’s reign (Jeremiah 25:1). Just before this text, in the last verses of chapter 26, Jehoiakim’s ties with Egypt are clearly manifest. The only way (or at least the cleanest way) these verses make sense as they are written is that Jehoiakim‘s name was changed to ’Zedekiah’ under Nebuchadnezzar.” [Loyal Baker, Fruit Height, UT, “Letters to the Editor,” The Book of Mormon Archaeological Digest, Volume II, Issue III, 1999, p. 15]
Note* Jeremiah’s chapters were scrambled. Jeremiah could have been speaking from the time of Zedekiah and referring back to earlier times. So this argument might not hold water. But then again it begs some questions that must be considered. Why would Nebuchadnezzar change the name of Mattaniah to Zedekiah (2 Kings 24:17), (which means “ Yahweh is (my) righteousness” in order to show vassalage to Babylon? Perhaps he was reinforcing the prophecies of Jeremiah, a prophet of Yahweh, in which the king had been warned to submit to Babylon. [Alan C. Miner, Personal Notes]
“In the Commencement of the First Year of the Reign of Zedekiah”
It is interesting that the phrase “in the commencement of” does not show up at any place in the Bible as the word “commencement” is never used (see Strong’s Exhaustive Concordance of the Bible). Nevertheless, a parallel word “beginning” occurs 106 times (54 times in the Old Testament and 55 times in the New Testament--see Strong’s Concordance, p. 115). The phrase “in the beginning of” has a number of biblical occurrences, however it is most interesting that of the seven references used to denote the beginning of some specific year or reign, five of them occur in the book of Jeremiah. Nephi will note later on when he acquires the records kept by Laban that these records would contain writings “down to the commencement of the reign of Zedekiah” (1 Nephi 5:12) and also “many prophecies which have been spoken by the mouth of Jeremiah” (1 Nephi 5:13). The phrase “[In] the commencement of” is used 31 times in the Book of Mormon, mainly in the books of First Nephi (3), Alma (19), Helaman (3), and Third Nephi (6). Thus it seems that the Nephite record keepers might have been influenced by what was originally found in the records kept during the time of Jeremiah. [Alan C. Miner, Personal Notes]
Note* It is interesting that the historical books (the books of 1st & 2nd Kings and 1st and 2nd Chronicles) are all conspicuously lacking the phrase “in the beginning of.” Cleon Skousen notes the following concerning these books:
As the compiler of the book of Chronicles declares, “Now the acts of David the king, first and last, behold they are written in the book of Samuel the seer, and in the book of Nathan the Prophet, and in the book of Gad the seer.” (1 Chronicles 29:29). Tragically, all three of these magnificent scriptures have been lost. However, before they disappeared certain unknown compilers extracted material from them to create the six books known to us as: The First Book of Samuel; The Second Book of Samuel; The First Book of Kings; The Second Book of Kings; The First Book of Chronicles; The Second Book of Chronicles.
Nevertheless, it is extremely important to appreciate that these six books are historical compilations of a later date and are not the original writing of God’s inspired prophets except as the compilers used their original material verbatim. Of course, two of the books do bear the name of Samuel and it is likely that much of the first and second books of Samuel was drawn from that prophet’s writings; however, even these two books were originally called a part of the books of the kings. Not until long after their creation were they allowed to carry the name of the prophet Samuel. (Adam Clarke Bible Commentary, Vol. 2, pp. 204-205)
A careful study of these six historical books will disclose occasional tampering and editing by the ancient scribes. They were much more inclined to do this when copying “historical” books than when engaged in transcribing the inspired writings of a prophet who had originally recorded his material under the enveloping influence of direct revelation. (Adam Clarke Bible Commentary, Vol. 2, p. 269)
[W. Cleon Skousen, The Fourth Thousand Years, pp. 2-3]
“In the Commencement of the First Year of the Reign of Zedekiah - Smith Scenario”
Although Nephi doesn’t actually begin recording on the small plates until between 30 and 40 years after Lehi left Jerusalem (2 Nephi 5:28-34), Nephi’s story begins “in the commencement of the first year of the reign of Zedekiah” (1 Nephi 1:4). Do we know when Zedekiah’s reign actually began? According to Robert Smith, in 604 B.C. Nebuchadnezzar pushed his Babylonian kingdom across Syria, down through Palestine and right up to the gateway of Egypt, which left the Pharaoh no power to move out of Egypt (2 Kings 24:7). In the process of sweeping westward, Nebuchadnezzar had subjugated Judah and put the Jews under tribute. For three years Jehoiakim, the king of Judah, paid his tribute to Babylon. Then, in 601 B.C., the Babylonians attempted to conquer Egypt and were repulsed. Pharaoh Necho then chased the Babylonian army to Philistia and conquered Gaza. This apparently encouraged Jehoiakim to rebel against the Babylonians and move back toward Pharaoh Necho, who had put Jehoiakim on the throne of Judah in the first place. Although Babylon was incensed, it was two or three years before they got around to settling the score with Judah because of pressing Egyptian campaigns.
When Jehoiakim finally revolted against Babylonian rule, the local Babylonian-controlled army units attempted but failed to control the rebellion. Nebuchadnezzar then sent a contingent of Babylonian troops and ordered his nearby tributaries to join them in attacking Judah. Nebuchadnezzar’s army arrived in Judah in late December of 598 B.C. and immediately laid siege to Jerusalem. As the defense of Jerusalem stiffened, the siege was severely tightened, cutting off all food supplies. King Jehoiakim either tried to escape or otherwise exposed himself at a point where his defenses were weak, and the Babylonians captured him. The scripture says, "Nebuchadnezzar king of Babylon … bound [Jehoiakim] in fetters to carry him to Babylon (2 Chronicles 36:6). But the trip never took place because Jehoiakim, who was only 36 years of age at this time (2 Chronicles 36:5), unexpectedly died or was killed. His body was cast out on the ground and then dragged away and buried without pomp or lamentation, beyond the gates of Jerusalem. All this happened just as Jeremiah had predicted (Jeremiah 22:18-19; 36:30).
The siege continued, however, and the dead king’s eighteen-year-old son Jehoiachin (Coniah) reigned in his father’s stead for three months and ten days (2 Kings 24:8; 2 Chronicles 36:9).
At the end of this time, the leaders of the people decided to cease resisting in order to save the city from being ravaged and the people from starving. On March 16, 597 B.C., “Jehoiachin the king of Judah went out to the king of Babylon, he, and his mother, and his servants, and his princes, and his officers” (2 Kings 24:12). As a result of this surrender, the Babylonians did not destroy the city. The punishment consisted of limited looting and the taking of hostages. At this time, Nebuchadnezzar took only the smaller gold and silver vessels from the temple and immediately upon the capture of Jerusalem, only deported 3,023 Jews (Jeremiah 52:28). Later, the scriptures say that he rounded up and carried away ”all the princes, and all the mighty men of valour, even ten thousand captives, and all the craftsmen and smiths (2 Kings 24:14). Ezekiel is believed to have been in this group. The young king Jehoiachin was carted off to Babylon and held in some type of imprisonment for 37 years before a later king of Babylon would finally bring him out and allow him the relative freedom of other Jews (Jeremiah 52:31-34).
In the place of Jehoiachin, Nebuchadnezzar left as ruling governor of the land a man known to us as Zedekiah. He was the uncle of Jehoiachin, and his Jewish name was Mattaniah (2 Kings 24:17), but the king of Babylon changed it to Zedekiah. He was 21 when he was placed on the throne on April 22, 597 B.C. However, he might not have started his official reign until at least October 6 of that year, or on April 1 of the following year (596 B.C.). The Bible uses various methods of reckoning. [Robert Smith, “Book of Mormon Event Structure”, F.A.R.M.S., 1984, p. 14] [See Appendix A]
“In the Commencement of the First Year of the Reign of Zedekiah - Pratt Scenario”
John Pratt writes that in the beginning narrative of the Book of Mormon, the calling of Lehi as a prophet, his warning to the Jews that Jerusalem was to be destroyed, and his subsequent departure from Jerusalem with his family into the wilderness is linked to the time of the reign of Zedekiah. Certain prophecies found within the text also link the time of Lehi’s departure as being “six hundred years” (1 Nephi 19:8) from the birth of Christ. Thus it is important for the reader to understand the historical and chronological background concerning the “reign of Zedekiah” in order to evaluate the various chronological theories which have been proposed.
The Historical Setting
The events surrounding the destruction of Lehi’s Jerusalem are well-founded chronologically because they are described in both the Babylonian record and the Biblical account. Each acts as a second witness of the other. Both histories complement each other on the key issues relevant to this question, with each filling in details left out by the other. The great contribution of the Babylonian account is that it provides an absolute chronological framework for the entire period. It is absolute because the Babylonians kept records of where the planets were among the constellations. When those observations are recalculated by computer and compared to the traditional historical dates for that period, they are found to be in excellent agreement. Such astronomical observations provide the firmest dating of any method known. With that in mind, let us review the history of Jerusalem based on the combined Biblical and Babylonian accounts.
The Reign of Jehoiakim
Jehoiakim was the king of Judah when the conflicts between Judah and Babylon began. The first year of the reigns of Jehoiakim began in 608 B.C. At that time Egypt was the dominant force over the Syro-Palestine area; in fact, Pharaoh Necho had placed Jehoiakim on the throne (see 2 Kings 23:34, 2 Chronicles 36:4).
In the beginning of the reign of Jehoiakim , the prophets began to predict captivity and destruction unless the people repented. Jeremiah prophesied that Jerusalem would be depopulated and destroyed: “this city shall be desolate without an inhabitant” (Jeremiah 26:9).
Another prophet named Urijah prophesied similarly (Jeremiah 26:20). The people of Jerusalem were shocked at such predictions, which seemed impossible to be fulfilled, because Jerusalem had always been a stronghold. Even when the Assyrians had conquered the rest of the area over a century earlier, they had not been able to conquer Jerusalem. Thus, the people mocked these prophets and sought to take away their lives. Jeremiah’s life was finally spared, but when Urijah fled to Egypt, Jehoiakim had him brought back and executed (Jeremiah 26:21-23).
In the fourth year of Jehoiakim, Babylon’s spreading dominion met Egypt head on at the Battle of Carchemish, an Egyptian stronghold north of Jerusalem in Syria (Jeremiah 46:2). There, in May-June of 605 B.C., Nebuchadnezzar, the crown prince of Babylon, defeated Necho. Nebuchadnezzar immediately went to each of the countries which had been under Egyptian rule and took a few captives from among their princes, apparently without further battle. Daniel was among that first group deported to Babylon (Daniel 1:1-6). In August, Nebuchadnezzar received word of his father’s death, and he returned to Babylon and was crowned king in September 605 B.C.
The First Destruction of Jerusalem
According to a Babylonian account, during the next year each of the kings of Syro-Palestine (which included Jehoiakim) appeared before Nebuchadnezzar and paid him an annual tribute. The Old Testament records that Jehoiakim paid the tribute for three years (2 Kings 24:1) and the Babylonian record confirms that for the three years of 604, 603 and 602 B.C. the tribute was collected in November-December. When it came time to collect the tribute in the next year, Egypt and Judah rebelled. The Babylonian record states that beginning in November 601 B.C., Nebuchadnezzar fought a great war with Egypt, which he barely won, with both sides suffering heavy casualties. The Bible states that after Jehoiakim had served Nebuchadnezzar for three years,
then he turned and rebelled against him. And the Lord sent against him bands of the Chaldees, and bands of the Syrians, and bands of the Moabites, and bands of the children of Ammon, and sent them against Judah to destroy it, according to the word of the Lord, which he spake by his servants the prophets." (2 Kings 24:1-2)
Thus, while Nebuchadnezzar was personally at war in Egypt, his vassal kingdoms of Syro-Palestine were punishing Jerusalem for Jehoiakim’s rebellion. The destruction they inflicted upon Judah in November-December 601 B.C. was severe enough that, as stated in the above quotation, it was said to have fulfilled the words of the prophets that Jerusalem would be destroyed. This was the first destruction of Jerusalem by Babylon. This destruction has generally been entirely overlooked in histories of this period, so let us not confuse it with the well-known second and final destruction of Jerusalem by Babylon over thirteen years later in 587 B.C.
For an account of the last three years of Jehoiakim’s reign which followed, the Bible refers us to other books no longer extant (2 Kings. 24:5, 2 Chronicles 36:8), but fortunately the Jewish historian Josephus and other Jewish traditions fill in the gap, presumably because they had access to those books. They state that three years later (in December 598 B.C.) Jehoiakim again refused to pay the tribute. This time Nebuchadnezzar marched to the city and convinced the Sanhedrin to lower Jehoiakim down over the wall to prevent a battle. Nebuchadnezzar bound him in fetters (2 Chronicles 36:6), paraded him before various cities of Judah, and then slew him and threw his corpse to the dogs, thus fulfilling a prophecy of Jeremiah (Jeremiah 22:18-19).
Nebuchadnezzar then selected Jehoiakim’s son Jeconiah to be the new king, changing his name to Jehoiachin. He then returned to Babylon, taking with him some 3,000 more captives from the upper class, including Ezekiel. After arriving in Babylon, his advisers convinced him that it was too dangerous to let Jehoiakim’s son reign, so he returned to Jerusalem and demanded Jehoiachin’s surrender. On Saturday, 10 March 597 B.C. (on our calendar), after a reign of only three months and ten days (2 Chronicles 36:9), Jehoiachin submitted without resistance, and spent the rest of his life in Babylon. The Babylonian record then states merely that Nebuchadnezzar “captured the city,” and the Bible confirms that the captivity was so complete that “all Jerusalem” was deported, with over 10,000 captives being taken to Babylon, including all of the wealthy:
And he carried away all Jerusalem, and all the princes, and all the mighty men of valour, even ten thousand captives, and all the craftsmen and smiths: none remained, save the poorest sort of the people of the land. And he carried away Jehoiachin to Babylon, and the king’s mother, and the king’s wives, and his officers, and the mighty of the land, those carried he into captivity from Jerusalem to Babylon. And all the men of might, even seven thousand, and craftsmen and smiths a thousand, all that were strong and apt for war, even them the king of Babylon brought captive to Babylon. And the king of Babylon made Mattaniah his father’s brother king in his stead, and changed his name to Zedekiah. (2 Kings 24:14-17)
Note that even though so many inhabitants of Jerusalem were taken into exile at this time, there was no major battle and the city was not destroyed. Thus, Nebuchadnezzar chose Mattaniah, being Jehoiakim‘s brother and Jehoiachin’s uncle, to be the new king and changed his name to be Zedekiah.
Zedekiah ruled over the poor who were left in Jerusalem for just over ten years. During that time Jeremiah prophesied that the taking of captives was essentially over. Comparing the inhabitants of Judah to figs, the Lord declared through him that all of the good figs worth keeping had already been taken to Babylon, and those left behind were the rotten ones (Jeremiah 24:1-10). He clearly stated that the next time Nebuchadnezzar returned, he would not show mercy, but the inhabitants would either be killed by famine, pestilence or the sword, or would be scattered (see Jeremiah 21:7). The prophet Ezekiel in Babylon was a second witness to this prophecy. In a dramatic demonstration before the city, he shaved off his hair and beard growth of over a year and divided them into three parts. He burned one part, chopped up another part with a knife, and scattered the third part in the wind (Ezekiel 4:5-6, 5:1-2). The Lord explained that the demonstration represented the fate of Jerusalem:
A third part of thee shall die with the pestilence, and with famine shall they be consumed in the midst of thee; and a third part shall fall by the sword round about thee; and I will scatter a third part into all the winds, and I will draw out a sword after them. (Ezekiel 5:12)
An important point for this article is that the number of captives that would be taken after Zedekiah began to reign in 597 B.C. was not enough to be represented at all in the symbolism just described. In fact, the Lord specifically warned the inhabitants of Jerusalem through two witnesses that if they did not repent, the next time they should not to expect anything as merciful as being deported.
The Second Destruction of Jerusalem
These prophecies of pestilence, famine and destruction were fulfilled in the eleventh year of Zedekiah, after Nebuchadnezzar had laid siege to the Jerusalem for a year and a half. The great city of Jerusalem fell in June of 587 B.C. (Jeremiah 39:1-8). Most of the inhabitants who had not already died of starvation or pestilence were then either killed by the sword or scattered. Zedekiah was bound in fetters and taken back to Babylon, along with a few other captives (about 800, see Jeremiah 52:29). The houses of the inhabitants were burned and the wall of the city broken down (Jeremiah 39:8). About a month later the temple was also burned to the ground (2 Kings 25:8-9), finishing the complete destruction of Jerusalem in 587 B.C.
The dates of the two destructions and four deportations of captives are summarized as follows:
Year B.C.Event
608 1st year of Jehoiakim. Jeremiah prophesied Jerusalem’s destruction and desolation
605 Babylon replaced Egypt as world power and took control of Judah. A few princes taken
captive (First deportation).
Dec. 601 Jehoiakim rebelled; Jerusalem partially destroyed (First destruction).
Dec. 598 Jehoiakim executed, Jehoiachin began reign. (Second deportation).
Mar. 597 Third deportation (of over 10,000) to Babylon. Then Zedekiah began to reign.
June 587 Jerusalem destroyed (Second destruction) and Fourth Deportation of only a few.
[John P. Pratt, "Lehi’s 600-year Prophecy of the Birth of Christ, Http://[www.meridianmagazine.com/articles/000331sixhundred.html]] [See the commentary on 1 Nephi 10:4]
1 Nephi 1:4 The reign of Zedekiah ([Illustration] The Babylonian Empire of Nebuchadnezzar at the time of Zedekiah. [Adapted from W. Cleon Skousen, Treasures from the Book of Mormon, Vol. 1, p. 1000]